I posted my longest video to date:
I'll post a few images from the video in the days ahead. Making such a big video felt pretty exhausting.
Best to you
Celebrating 28 years on the web! Scratch analog electronic design — radio & audio. Join us on the bench as we learn & measure home-built, analog electronic circuits
I posted my longest video to date:
I'll post a few images from the video in the days ahead. Making such a big video felt pretty exhausting.
Best to you
Above — +/- 15 VDC input and ground ports on die cast chassis.
Above — Side view showing all the input and output ports.
Above — Schematic of 50 Ω differential bridge assembly. I employed a split DC supply to boost headroom and simplify op-amp biasing.I use the moderate power BD139/140 for the filter transistors: a sturdy part with low flicker noise -- no apologies.
Above — Input ports. Left: DC input (direct with a wire) using an SMA connector. Middle: AC coupled port with RCA jack. Built in 220 µF coupling cap allows testing of 50 ohm input Z audio amplifiers with no worries about the bridge causing a DC disturbance of the biasing or current.
Right: 50 Ω audio signal generator input with a BNC connector.
Above — The output of the instrumentation amp U1 gets buffered by the U2a follower. Low impedance output to use a 50 Ω terminated DSO as the detector.
Above — In analog output direct conversion or superhet receivers that use a diode ring product detector, we often employ a simple post product detector network that some refer to as a diplexer. It's not quite a diplexer, although, it does provide a 50 Ω termination to a narrow band of RF frequencies.
You might sweep this network at AF and RF with return loss bridges to study the input match versus frequency.
Above — My current post product detector network with part values chosen to try and match from 200 Hz to 200 MHz. This proved very difficult with such a simple network because the bandwidth is huge and really this calls for 2-3 networks to get it done. However, in simple receivers, this basic network works OK. The impedance match looks terrible from ~ 1 to 4 MHz, however, trying to fix this worsened the match elsewhere.
I performed the above AF measurements with my old audio return loss bridge built in 2010. It failed recently -- and that failure prompted me to design and build this new AF return loss bridge.
Compromise is a key term in simpler RF design. The network components shown gave me the best overall input Z match from 200 Hz to 200 MHz. This network also provided decent low-pass filtration of the RF lurking in the product detector's audio output. A 220 µF (or higher value) audio coupling capacitor helps keep the input noise down in the AF preamp.
Above — Testing gear used in the video: a 50 Ω Mini Circuits SMA terminator + barrel connector to 50 Ω coax -- and an RCA jack with a 2K potentiometer.
Above — This blog post supports the video shown above
[1] SIGNAL GENERATOR
Steve AA7U & Everett N4CY, built gear -- plus a procedure to test Intermodulation Distortion (IMD) on a loop amplifier using a Siglent SDG2042X generator and SSA3021X spectrum analyzer. Click on this hyperlink to read about it. I'm a fan of Siglent test equipment.
My strategy employs a 50.0 MHz crystal oscillator-based signal generator plus a 50.1 MHz VFO as the second signal source. My VFO tunes from about 49.6 to 51.8 MHz via a front panel air variable capacitor.
My 50.1 MHz VFO
Above — VFO schematic. Although I had worked out the low-pass filter L and C values, I built this VFO without a schematic and perhaps would build it differently if I needed to make another. I might consider tuning the output of the differential amplifier buffer for more output power and less harmonic energy.
I thought mostly about temperature drift when making this -- I started with JFET amp as the oscillator and struggled to make it work. This would be wise since a JFET offers better temperature drift over a BJT and gives a cleaner output signal with lower phase noise. However, I only had 1 day for this entire project and got frustrated. I deployed a common base PNP BJT local oscillator (LO) that never fails for me.
Both the LO and its buffer get regulated, well filtered DC. The LO gets temperature compensation/separation from the 8.2 volt Zener diode-based voltage regulator by way of 2 R C low-pass filters. I applied several C0G caps to resonate the tank and ran 2 air variable trimmer capacitors -- 1 as the main board frequency trimmer, the other as the front panel tuning control.
The LO gets lightly coupled via 1 pF to a differential amplifier emitter fed 10 mA with a current source. Differential amps offer strong reverse isolation, plus a reduced 2nd harmonic if the BJT balance is OK. The BC546 pair offer reasonable balance right out of the bin (without matching) & the BC546C serves as my go-to differential amp BJT from DC to ~ 100 MHz. The 10 mA current source, plus the 21 mA current in the final feedback amp provide heat for my temperature compensation scheme.
Low-pass filters built using T30-10 toroids worked OK. This was a board cram -- so the inductors are not spaced apart as much as when more board space is available. The 22 gauge air inductor measured ~ 374 nH & seems well anchored to the main 1-sided board with J-B Weld epoxy, plus the grounded coil lead soldered to the main board. The main board = 1/16″ (1.60 mm) Half Ounce 500 Series Copper Clad Board from MG Chemicals.
Above — Close up of the tank coil secured with a messy application of epoxy.
Above — Side view. The actual front panel capacitor leads were this long to allow slack to put on the herring tin cover. The Herring Tin lid added much difficulty with temperature compensation and construction tactics -- but I got it done! The idea of the herring tin cover came from this blog post
Above —View for the VFO showing the DC input port ( an RCA connector ) plus the SMA RF output port. 2 bolts hold the tin to the copper clad board.
Above — My 50.0 MHz xtal based oscillator next to the Herring made VFO. Ready for 2 tone testing. The front panel tuning capacitor is front left. The front panel bolt just fills in a hole I drilled by mistake.
If I want to drive a DUT such as a high IP3 amp -- or say a diode ring mixer ( I rarely use them anymore), I'll chain up 1 of 3 separate, sealed up wide band amplifiers that range from 12 dB to 26 dB gain (up to 150 MHz or so). I also have a plethora of low-pass and band-pass filters in sealed Hammond cases that go from 5 MHz to microwave if needed.
[2] 6 dB HYBRID COMBINER
Above — The VHF targeted hybrid combiner is also a return loss bridge and vice versa. No experimenter bench should likely be without a return loss bridge or 3. I built with standard 1/4 watt 1% metal film resistors and tried several different coils as the transformer. After many versions, I settled with 3 stacked BN61-2402 ferrites with 4 total turns of lightly twisted wire. I twisted the wires only enough so they would stay together during winding. Because of only 4 turns, I was able to use 28 gauge wire. I measured 43 dB port isolation at 50 MHz.
Above — The applied transformer.
Above — Boxed up combiner/return loss bridge with a Mini-Circuits Lab 50 Ω SMA resistive load attached.
Above — Another view of the hybrid coupler
Greetings! For 2-3 years, I’ve received emails from readers seeking a simple “popcorn” discrete transistor PA to substitute for the LM386 part in their DYI projects. Readers wanted 3-4 transistors maximum & no differential amplifiers with current sources — and hopefully low distortion up to 1 watt with a ~12 VDC single supply.
That seemed a tall order, but I did it (more or less). I’ll define ‘popcorn’ to mean that at maximum clean signal power, all harmonics are down to -50 to -55 dBc. This amp behaves well until driven to about 1.3 Watts. I made a video that lies in the last section.
Above — LM386 driven to 808 mW. This is the only LM386 scope trace I had where the voltage gain = 40 plus I had applied a good negative feedback network. Therefore, this practice seems a reasonable head-to-head test against the most venerable LM386. The Popcorn PA makes less distortion at 1 Watt, than the LM386 does at 0.81 W. At 1W power, the LM386 begins compressing into a square wave.
I promote bench experiments – and developed this amp on my bench. I began with a lower power version using 2N4401/2N4403 complimentary emitter followers to drive the speakers. Push- pull drive as opposed to a single-ended PA driver seems the best way to go for decent output power. You might substitute any number of small signal BJTS such as the 2N3904 for the 2N4401 (or the PNP equivalent) in this project.
Let’s start where I began. I’ll show the development of the Popcorn AF PA and give ideas to consider in your own experiments.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
[ SECTION 1 ] LOW POWER DEVELOPMENT VERSION
[ SECTION 2 ] OUTPUT STAGE BIAS
[ SECTION 3 ] FULL POWER VERSION
[ SECTION 4 ] VIDEO
---- [ SECTION 1 ] LOW POWER DEVELOPMENT VERSION ----
Above — The schematic of the initial & fledgling Popcorn PA using paired 2N4401/2N4403 as the complimentary emitter followers. In 1956 while working for RCA, H.C. Lin developed the first transistor power amp that didn’t use an output transformer. By around 1968, output transformers in solid state AF power amps had all but disappeared in professional designs.
Audio transformers suffer from non-linearity and in the case of the tiny transformers employed in cheap transistor radios of lore — these gave distortion, poor bass response -- plus very low output unless run in push-pull fashion. I suggest there are < 2 coherent reasons to use AF output transformers for solid state designs in 2023.
Input Stage
Without a differential pair as the input stage, I chose a PNP for the Q1 input amp with global negative feedback coming from the output rail going back to the Q1 emitter. The Q1 emitter also gets local feedback -- AC degeneration through the 330 Ω resistor. Because of all the feedback on Q1, Q2 provides most of the voltage gain and gets around double the collector current.
In all PA versions, Q1 bias gets set by a potentiometer (20K here). The pot proves necessary since all of us use a slightly different DC power supply voltages. The potentiometer allows you to optimize the Q1 bias for the lowest possible distortion with whatever DC power supply you use. When satisfied, you may remove the pot, measure it, and replace it with 1 -- or 2 series or parallel resistors to try to get as close as possible to the measured pot value. Alternately, you hard wire in a 20 – 25K trimmer potentiometer.
In the final Popcorn PA version, I show a fixed Q1 bias resistor and a procedure how to set this value
The Q2 “stack” includes Q2 & all the parts connected to the Q2 collector going straight up to the positive DC power supply rail. Q2 serves as the main voltage amplifier. I placed a 10 Ω emitter resistor as local negative feedback to stabilize the stack against HF during development. I have not found any HF instability in the Popcorn PA with or without that 10 Ω resistor.
With the 2K Q2 collector resistor, the stack draws ~ 2.5 mA. Let’s look at some DSO outputs:
Above — DSO time domain output. The first draft PA driven to 2.01 volts peak-peak. Lovely sine wave. Power = 64 mW.
Above — Left PA driven to 4 Vpk-pk [ 253 mW ] and 5 Vpk-pk [ 396 mW ]. Only the fundamental 2nd,3rd and 4th harmonics shown. The 3rd harmonic tone starts to rise as the amp is driven to 4 Vpp. You can see the limitations of a single pair of TO-92 transistors such as the 2N4401/2N4403.
We’ve already exceeded the harmonic distortion goal for a popcorn PA amplifier. That is --- all harmonics must be down 50-55 dB at the maximum clean power
Above — FFT with PA driven to 6 Vpk-pk or 570 mW. The 3rd harmonic is only 27-28 dB down. These TO-92 transistors are getting hot and starting to stink. Some of this distortion might be Beta droop from the high collector current plus heat.
Regardless, this seems like unacceptable distortion. You could easily hit power level this high on a strong Morse code (CW) station.
At this point, the 2N4401/4403 emitter followers seem only good enough for headphone level listening.
What can we do to try boost their linearity?
Technique One — Bootstrapping
Above — Boot strapping Q2.Above — The FFT of the PA driven to 2.0 Vpp or 63 mW into a 7.9 Ω load. If anything, the 3rd harmonic is about the same while the rest are a bit worse. Bootstrapping is not helping here.
Above — FFT of the PA driven to 6.03 Vpp or 753 mW. In this case, the harmonic distortion has improved. For example the 3rd harmonic improved by about 7 dB. But overall, the net distortion exceeds our harmonic distortion goal.
Theoretically, bootstrapping may help and often works as well as driving the Q2 stack with a current source. However, it doesn’t seem to work in this simple amplifier with a 2N4401/2N4403 pair.
Above — A fun FFT of what happens when you submit the 2N4401/2N4403 pair to 1 Watt power. Lots of compression, square waves & those emitter followers are smoking hot + stinking up the room.
Technique Two — Current Source
Above — I biased a single PNP to function as a current source. I set the output current as close as possible to that of the Q2 stack with the 2K collector resistor (limited by standard value resistors). The current source provides high impedance drive to the emitter follower pair. I won’t show any tracings because the current source, like the positive feedback, didn’t reduce distortion --- and in for some tones, worsened it. I went back using a collector resistor.Above — For reference, With the 2K collector resistor driven to 3 Vpp. [142 mW power]
Above — With 1K Q2 collector resistor driven to 3 Vpp. The 2nd harmonic improved by ~ 5 dB and the 3rd by about 4 dB. At higher power like 500-600 mW, , the distortion was still too high for my liking. Further, the increase in amplifier quiescent current for the net reduction in harmonic content wasn’t worth it.
I’ve gone as far as I can with the simple 2N4401/2N4403 emitter followers. I’ve got to add some current gain and get some proper power followers.
Before, we go to Section 3, the high power version of the Popcorn QRP PA -- Section 2 quickly covers output stage biasing:
---- [ SECTION 2
] OUTPUT STAGE BIAS ----
2 diodes produce a voltage drop of around 1.3 volts providing sufficient bias for the 2N4401/2N4403 output emitter followers. From reading & my own experiments, the output bias may affect PA output distortion. The most obvious way is by giving crossover distortion.
Above — An FFT of the 1 diode output bias with only the amp driven to 36 mW output power. The distortion dominates with odd order harmonics.
Above — FFT after adding back the 2nd output bias diode. This reduced the amplifier distortion shown above. Crossover plus output follower switching distortion pose factors we must live with. How far the output pair are biased from Class B towards Class A may also affect amplifier distortion.
However, using 2 diodes, we don’t have much control over that. You may place a small value resistor in series with 1 diode instead of using 2 diodes -- or in series with 2 (or more) diodes to change the output bias. An alternate way is to remove the diodes and replace them with a transistor.
[ SECTION 3 ] FULL POWER VERSION
Above — Device under test. The best part about bench building is getting to use your test equipment. Glory and fun on the bench. Since I usually make 22 – 50 watt PAs, my electrolytic capacitor collection are all rated 50 volt to 100 volts. They look quite large in the Popcorn PA.
Above — Popcorn PA with DC voltages. Q1 shows fixed bias. I’ll give the bias procedure soon. The 10 Ω Q2 emitter resistor got dropped since this adds 1-2 dB of lower tone harmonic distortion under heavier drive.
Power Followers
Play with every resistor value on the test bench. You’ll probably make a better PA than I did.
Let’s go through some FFT’s of the Popcorn PA at various drive levels:
Above — Cranking up the drive! FFT while driven to output 8.39 or 1.11 Watts. Still meets our popcorn goal of all tones down 50-55 dB at maximum clean power.
Above — FFT while driving the PA to 9.18 Vpp. The harmonic tones are starting to rise!Above — FFT while driven to 1.34 Watts. Things are falling apart. Ok, let’s finish up.
Above — Set up schematic. If your power supply is close to 12 VDC, then consider just building the fixed Q1 bias version shown earlier. However, bigger is better in PA stages. If you’ve got 13.8 or 14 VDC, then your maximum clean output power will go up. You may choose to optimize Q1 bias for a different DC supply.Above — It seems better to watch this video on YouTube directly.
Addendum:
To clarify, I think the LM386 is an awfully good part. Imagine if your design team made a linear IC that went into hundreds of thousands of projects or products? I'm a fan of the LM386 and the designers left us IC pins to add negative feedback with.
I cover this in the following blog post: